Modular pathway engineering for enhancing terpenoid production in plants

Terpenoids represent a structurally diverse and industrially valuable class of plant metabolites, encompassing mono-, sesqui-, di-, tri-, and tetraterpenoids, with broad applications in fragrances, pharmaceuticals, pigments, and beyond. In plants, their biosynthesis via the mevalonate and methylerythritol phosphate pathways involves complex multistep enzymatic reactions, often resulting in low yields in native systems. To address this challenge, biosynthetic pathway modularization has been increasingly adopted within plant metabolic engineering for terpenoid production. A push-block-pull framework has emerged in which ‘push’ strategies enhance precursor supply, ‘block’ strategies prevent flux loss through competing or degrading pathways, and ‘pull’ strategies enhance storage capacity. These are implemented through five functional modules (M): precursor amplification (M1), intermediate assembly (M2), target terpenoid synthesis (M3), metabolic diversion suppression (M4), and storage capacity optimization (M5). Pathway reconfiguration through modularity enables improved control over metabolic flux by dividing biosynthetic routes into discrete functional units. In this context, we highlight successful applications of this framework in plant-based terpenoid engineering, with a particular focus on modular pathway design, alongside synthetic biological strategies. Furthermore, we discuss how the Design-Build-Test-Learn cycle accelerates the development of modular metabolic circuits for scalable and sustainable terpenoid production in plants. Coupled with big data–driven systems biology and AI-guided protein engineering, this approach paves the way for a new generation of customizable plant biofactories.